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"Toolbox of Techniques"-
Strategies for Teaching Diverse Learners
Dr. Novick
Spring 2011
TABLE OF CONTENTS
#1: Positive Reinforcement
#2: Time-Out
#3: Behavioral Contracting
#4: Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
#5: Cross-Age Mentoring
#6: Class-Wide Peer Tutoring
#7: Curriculum Compacting for Gifted Students
#8: Time-Management Training
Title of Tool/Technique #1: Positive Reinforcement
Description of tool/technique: Students often do not possess intrinsic motivation to perform academic tasks or perform certain behaviors; therefore, they must be offered incentives as extrinsic motivation. When something positive is administered as the result of a desirable behavior, the behavior is reinforced, and the students become conditioned to repeat the behavior in the hopes of receiving that reward again. “The ultimate goal …is for students to succeed by performing tasks that facilitate their future growth through sustained intrinsic motivation”. (Witze 2003, 89)
Applications: -Rewards may be tangible, such as candy; they may be special privileges; or they may be verbal, such as praise. Praise, which is immediate, sincere and specific, is the most effective reinforcement both short and long-term improvement. Physical rewards should be delivered along with praise so that the reward can be removed while continuing the praise. -Research shows that most positive reinforcers yield immediate compliance with desirable behaviors, and many suggest that it is even necessary for learning (Witzel, 90). -In order for the reward to elicit student compliance, it must be relevant to the task and worth the effort. Students must feel a connection with the teacher for the reward or consequence to matter and to be a convincing incentive. -Teachers must determine when and how often to give positive reinforcement to motivate students to perform as desired, and must be creative to decide which reinforcers will be effective and appropriate. We must determine the cause of student behaviors, and therefore recognize if we are sending an appropriate message while using positive reinforcement, and are not counter-productively attracting more negative student behavior for the sake of receiving incentives towards rewards. -Rewards may be given to a class or to individuals, but must be given wisely and sensitively as per student needs and abilities. -Students with special needs require more external control for their behavior, and therefore require more extrinsic motivation.
Application Limits: -Many positive reinforcers easily become overused, don’t address social-skills problems, foster long-term dependency, and often do not generalize beyond the classroom (p. 90). They usually do not yield long-term changes of behavior, but rather only short-term compliance. -Children are often stimulated by incentives which may be costly or unhealthy, i.e. junk food. One psychologist recommends rewards that have “no sugar, no salt, and no cost”. -Teachers sometimes become dependent on giving rewards, if students realize that they will receive them for positive behaviors, and will not perform well unless incentivized. Teachers must know how to use it as an aid, but not as a crutch. -Some research suggests that positive reinforcement, which becomes extrinsic motivation, overpowers and negates any intrinsic motivation students may have had. -Physical rewards should only be given in addition to praise, so they can wean students off the physical rewards while still giving praise, and have them satisfied with that. -Students with special needs will require more extrinsic motivation, and while they may each require a unique reinforcer, they still expect equity among the rewards the classmates receive; the teacher must carefully determine which reinforcers will benefit which students and how.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: Teachers ofLimudei Kodesh,more than other subjects, try to create positive relationships with students both in and out of the classroom, to instill emotional and spiritual connections between the students and Jewish texts and role models. If students do not seem interested with the Jewish content, teachers fear disenchantment with Judaism in general, and often resort to trying to engage students by using incentives, in the hopes that students will like them and like the course. Torah teachers are especially careful that students will view both the teacher and the subject in a positive way, which, to children, is often by means of giving them prizes and other rewards. We can’t, however, allow the rewards to become excessive, or to be weak and succumb to pressure to give rewards. General studies teachers are usually not as liberal with rewards, and require hard work; we must motivate students to approach Limudei Kodesh seriously as well and not as a game to receive prizes, but with a feeling of, “Her ways are ways of pleasantness”.
Personal Reflections: In an era of affluence, children are materially comfortable, worldly, and feel entitled to luxuries and treats. They learn from an early-age that good behavior is not only spiritually and socially rewarding, but physically rewarding as well. When we condition them to, for example, say “Please” and then we give them a candy, they may think they don’t have to use good manners unless they get something in return. We must instill within children the virtues of kindness to others, hard work in school, and to simply “do the right thing” for its own sake, regardless of perks and benefits. I try to avoid bribing students with rewards, but am happy to shower them with frequent praise. I give physical rewards intermittently so they do not grow dependent on it, but still feel validated and that they do, indeed, get rewarded for good behavior.
Before starting my teaching position at a school with an affluent population, I was concerned that the students would be spoiled and feel entitled, and that no extrinsic motivation would be sufficient to motivate them. I was happily surprised when they responded so well to receiving simple carnival tickets or lollipops, or having their names written on the blackboard with a smiley face. Regardless of the expensive high-tech gadgets they receive as gifts, they are still children who get excited by sweets.
Resources and References:
Witzel, B. S., and Mercer, C. D., (2003). Using Rewards to Teach Students with Disabilities: Implications for Motivation. Remedial and Special Education, 24 (2)
Title of Tool/Technique #2: Time-Out
Description of tool/technique: When a student misbehaves, a teacher may reinforce the behavior by taking away something desirable, or giving something undesirable. There are varying degrees of time-out, ranging from simply ignoring the student’s disruption, to forcing him to sit apart from his classmates within the classroom, to secluding the student outside the classroom. Students learn that their actions have consequences.
Applications: -For a time-out outside of the classroom to be an effective consequence for bad behavior, time-in in the classroom must be very stimulating and enjoyable. Engaging teaching is the best way to pre-empt behavior problems. -Different forms and degrees of time-outs can be used for students across ages and grades. -The teacher should explain the reason for the time-out, and in a calm tone of voice. --Time-out should not be longer than a few minutes for minor misbehavior, or many minutes for more severe infractions.
Application Limits: -If a student’s intention in his misbehavior is to get a reprieve from learning, the time-out is actually reinforcing the misbehavior. -Teachers often administer punishments while upset; this leads to irrational, excessive, and ineffective punishing. It is often tempting to simply dismiss the problematic student from the classroom, but that is not always a useful solution. We should take care to deny privileges or give punishments calmly and fairly to avoid problem escalation. -For small children, time-out may prove frightening, not punitive, and they may not learn their lesson. For older students, only more-intense time-outs will prove punitive. Teachers need to think carefully about appropriate consequences for various developmental stages.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: Students may act-out during Tefila or Limudei Kodesh classes, but we do not want them to miss-out on the important ritual or valuable spiritual lesson, so some teachers are not quick to dismiss students, even if it is appropriate.
Personal Reflections: I recall, as a small child, being somewhat frightened of being sent to time-out. It is interesting to observe that my fifth-grade students are very hesitant, almost fearful, to be separated from their classmates to sit at a side-table as punishment, even within view.
Resources and References:
Barbetta, P.M., Norona K L., and Bicard, D. F. (2005). Classroom Behavior Management: A Dozen Common Mistakes and what to do Instead. Preventing School Failure, 49 (3) 12.
Title of Tool/Technique #3: Behavioral Contracting
Description of tool/technique: The teacher writes a contract, which students must sign, specifying the behavior she expects from them, and the consequences of behaving accordingly or not. After instructing students how to use the chart, and encouraging their self-management, teacher and student discuss if the student deserves rewards or penalties based on fulfillment of the expectations; studies show that they usually agree on the results the students deserve.
“The use of behavior contractsthat define expected behaviors and associated consequences
was related to: (a) increased student productivity (Kelley & Stokes, 1984), (b) increased on-task behavior and daily assignment completion (White-Blackburn, Semb, & Semb, 1977), (c) improved school grades (Williams & Anandam, 1973), and (d) improved student self-control (Drabman, Spitalnik, & O'Leary, 1973)” (Simonsen, 2008).
Applications: -Useful for students of all ages and grades, for individuals or for many students at one time. -Usable in any regular classroom setting, using consequences already in-use for other students. -Provides a visual reminder of expectations for students to see and remember throughout the day.
Application Limits: -It may be cumbersome for the teacher to concentrate and follow-up on the behavioral and academic performance of a few students while instructing a whole classroom. -Older students may think the contract is juvenile, and even younger students may be cynical and uncooperative about filling out the contract.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: The dual-curriculum of Jewish day schools, along with additional activities such as Tefilla, would necessitate a long and detailed contract to encompass all of a teacher’s hopes for students’ good conduct and successful academic performance. We may have to prioritize and select only a few behaviors are most significant to expect from disruptive or weak students.
Personal Reflections: This system demands that students are involved in and aware of the accountability of their actions. When teachers require students to sign a consent form that they will or will not behave a certain way, they think intensely about the ramifications. In Azrieli, one professor requires any student who uses a laptop computer in-class to sign a contract that s/e will not use Internet; I heard from a friend that a graduate program at NYU requires participants to sign a contract prohibiting cheating, at the expense of dismissal from the program. The conscious agreeing creates a conscience of abiding.
Resources and References:Barbetta, P.M., Norona K L., and Bicard, D. F. (2005). Classroom Behavior Management: A Dozen Common Mistakes and what to do Instead. Preventing School Failure, 49 (3) 12.
Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based Practices in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31 (3), 351-380.
White-Blackburn, G., Semb, S., & Semb, G. (1977). The effects of a good-behavior contract on the classroom behaviors of sixth grade students. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 312.
Title of Tool/Technique #4: Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
Description of tool/technique: Established after the revised 1997 IDEA, PBIS is a collection of guidelines and approaches to help school teachers and administrations organize, understand, and implement research on best-practice in education to improve academic and social-emotional behaviors. Rather than reacting to isolated incidents, it emphasizes successful cooperation of instructional and classroom management techniques as the best prevention for behavior problems, creating an overall positive school environment. There is a tiered progression of techniques for use with students from general to more-specific learning and behavior needs and issues.
Applications: -Designed for use with regular and special needs learners. -There are guidelines and resources for use with elementary and high-school students. -Faculty and parents are involved in some decision-making processes.
Application Limits: -Designed by the federal government’s Department of Education to access all types of learners in all types of settings, adaptable by schools and communities for their specific needs, it is currently being implemented by hundreds of schools and seems widely beneficial with no apparent limitations.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: The database has a great collection of resources and tools, adaptable across subjects and populations. Some things may need to be altered slightly for use in day schools, with different curriculum needs and cultural sensitivities.
Personal Reflections: This seems to be an impressive effort by a national establishment to provide uniform excellence among schools in behavioral and scholastic performance. I am not aware if I’ve ever seen this used, but anticipate utilizing its materials for help with my own classroom management, organization, and instruction.
Resources and References: www.pbis.org
Title of Tool/Technique #5: Cross-Age Mentoring
Description of tool/technique: Students across different grades are grouped to work together, with the older ones mentoring the younger ones. Mentors gain academically by teaching others, and also decrease negative behaviors such as truancy and dropping-out. Students in the older position are motivated by the opportunity to be role models, and benefit from being put into leadership roles. Even weak students may feel a boost in self-esteem, able to help others in ways they can. Mentees are also shown to learn better from mentors than from independent programs, such as educational computer games. Student-led tutoring has become more popular in recent times, emphasizing students’ involvement in their own learning processes.
Applications: -Can be used across all grades and achievement levels in a variety of subjects and activities. -Can be used in classrooms or informal settings for extra-curricular programs. -Most student tutors begin in or after 5th grade, when they have developed stable learning habits and can be responsible for a younger child. Schools often assign tutors to tutees two grades younger. -Students with special needs contribute and boost their self-image of competence by giving to younger students, when they are usually the ones receiving help from others. They are often paired with younger students with similar academic struggles. -This is helpful in immigrant populations, for students more-experienced in the language and culture to tutor younger newer immigrants. -Teachers should supervise grouping of students and ensure the older ones are properly guiding the younger ones.
Application Limits: -Not all of the older students will necessarily be strong students capable of properly teaching others. -Not all of the younger students will necessarily respond well to an older stranger. -Older students may not be aware or understand what younger students do or do not know and how to communicate in a way that is stimulating for both. –Students and tutors are gathered from various classrooms; it is challenging to coordinate schedules and location, and for the limited amount of teachers to supervise and monitor every group’s instruction and interaction.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: -A heavy workload, full classrooms, and limited staff may restrict opportunities for two or more classes to join together. -Hebrew may be part of the project, and may pose a challenge even for the older students.
Personal Reflections: The elementary school where I teach provides numerous wonderful opportunities for cross-age mentoring. Eighth graders help at many younger-grade programs, and fifth graders help first graders, and all ages in between get involved in both curricular and extra-curricular activities. Older students read stories with younger children during “Read Across America” and in special enrichment groups. Fifth graders act as role models helping first-graders learn to daven Hallel at school-wide Rosh Chodesh celebrations. It is precious to watch even the toughest students behaving very sweet, patient, and nurturing to younger children. They value the opportunities to be leaders, and rise to the occasion each time. As a teacher, each child’s potential to succeed and contribute really shines through when they are given the opportunity to share with others.
Resources and References:
Rekrut, M. D. (1994). Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring: The Lessons of Research. Journal of Reading, 37 (5) 356-362
Title of Tool/Technique #6: Class-Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT)
Description of tool/technique: Students in the same class or grade help each other learn. Students may be paired with a classmate who has similar learning abilities so that they can review and work well together on equal footing. Conversely, students with opposite learning abilities may work together as complementary to each other’s learning. For example, a stronger student may be paired with a weaker student, so the stronger student can help the weaker one review, and maybe the weaker one can even help the stronger one in a different way. Students are empowered to help each other, by working together, learning from and respecting their peers. They also may be more interested to learn with peers than to listen to a teacher.
“Classwide peer-tutoring(CWPT; e.g., Delquadri, 1986; Greenwood, Carta, & Hall, 1988) programs have been shown to improve both academic engagement and reading achievement (Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1989; Simmons, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 1995). Furthermore, the use
of CWPT has been shown to lead to a decrease in off-task behavior as well as an increase in academic performance for students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD; DuPaul, Ervin, Hook, & McGoey, 1998)” (Simonsen, et.al. 2008).
Applications: -Students of all ages and grades can be peer tutors, enjoying playing the role of teacher, or the roles of partners. -Good for use in any subject, formally or informally; both cognitive and affective content can be taught. Tutors and tutees are both conveniently located within the same classroom. -The most effective pairs, and the way students report feeling most comfortable- at any age- is with a peer of the same gender. -Training workshops result in more effective tutoring.
Application Limits: -Some weaker students may feel insulted or resentful of a classmate assuming the role of their teacher. To the contrary, some weak or lazy students will abuse the stronger classmate to their advantage by trying to cull from their knowledge and skills without exerting their own efforts. –There are usually a few students who insist on working alone.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: Ideally, this is an enactment of the classical Jewish pedagogical model of chavruta learning. If students do not like peer-tutoring, they may feel negatively inclined towards greater chavruta learning later in life.
Personal Reflections: While working with classmates, I always struggled, as a strong student, with the fine balance between working together: I would give the answers, carry the burden of the work, or was concerned I’d sound like I was preaching to my peers. I see now that when there is a culture of understanding and respecting different learning styles, and partners are switched for different projects so that different students work with others each time, there is good teamwork and less division between students of different learning abilities. I have learned the value of humility by working with others who contribute ideas and methods different from my own, and hope to impart that to my students.
Resources and References:
Rekrut, M. D. (1994). Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring: The Lessons of Research. Journal of Reading, 37 (5) 356-362
Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based Practices in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31 (3), 351-380.
Title of Tool/Technique #7: Curriculum Compacting for Gifted Students
Description of tool/technique: Advanced students often grow bored and may even become disruptive in a regular classroom which is directed towards the learning needs of average or below-average students. To keep them motivated and stimulated, teachers should modify materials and assignments for gifted students by omitting the more-basic information and skills which they already possess, jumping to the more advanced material, in quantity or in quality. Using specific standardized measures, teachers must carefully assess and diagnose which areas the gifted student has already mastered, and which objectives he has achieved and which he can advance towards. Ideally, the teacher or school should then provide enrichment within the subject, or acceleration beyond it into other realms. Compacting and enrichment materials should be in subjects in which the student is interested, and not simply subjects in which the student performs well without real interest.
Applications: -May be used starting from lower elementary school. -It may be extra work given to do in the regular classroom, or there may be a separate enrichment group that uses a different classroom. -Subjects can be compacted into topics or according to time intervals.
Application Limits: -This creates extra work for the teacher; but, just as she must differentiate for students with learning disabilities, so too gifted students deserve modifications to enable their maximum learning. -This demands extra resources to provide more curricular materials and time for the students to learn beyond the regular class.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: -Day schools and yeshivot already have so many subjects, and many varying levels of student achievement within the different subjects, such as Gemara and Ivrit. This makes it hard for teachers, with limited staff, to focus on the advanced needs of a few individuals, and to be prepared with advanced knowledge and materials for a possibly beyond the realm of his/her expertise. -Public school systems may have prepared enrichment materials; day schools need to create their own materials for Limudei Kodesh. -Students may already feel over-burdened with schoolwork, that even if they want to complete higher-level work, they may be too tired or busy to perform at a level higher than necessary.
Personal Reflections: We sometimes become too preoccupied with our students who are struggling to devote extra time and attention to students who are easily accomplishing. But we need to value and advance the learning potential of those strong students by providing opportunities for them to continue succeeding at their quicker pace and enjoying academic achievement. We need these students to feel motivated, empowered, and appreciated, yet without favoring them. I fondly remember and appreciate the enrichment opportunities I was given, and hope I can identify and satisfy the potential inherent in my students to enable their growth.
Resources and References: www.nagc.org
Renzulli, J.S., Smith, L. H., and Reis, S. M. (1982). Curriculum Compacting: An Essential Strategy for Working with Gifted Students. The Elementary School Journal 82 (3) 185-194.
Title of Tool/Technique #8: Time Management Training
Description of Tool/Technique: An obstacle to many students’ success is their misuse of time and disorganized study habits. While some people naturally manage time well, others do not; but, it can be taught. Effective time-management includes self-monitoring, planning, self-efficacy and both product and process goal-setting. Students often are not consciously aware of how they misuse their time, or underestimate how much time is needed for tasks. Some interventions for this are to keep a log to visualize the time they spend on different activities, to plan better and to avoid procrastination, and to track if the amounts of time they expected to take were accurate or not.
Application: Studies have been conducted on college students, and is even a course offered at some universities, and time-management training with the aforementioned interventions resulted in grade improvements, which were even maintained throughout many semesters.
Application Limits: Researchers understand the potential for learners of different ages and cognitive abilities to relate differently to time-management strategies.
Application Challenges in Jewish settings: Severe time restrictions for instruction of a dual-curriculum pose a challenge in spending time teaching students how to manage their time.
Personal Reflection: While time-management may seem like an “extra”, it is actually an essential skill which is fundamental to all classroom and academic success, and all basic life activities! Some people are naturally efficient, but others need practice. It is worth the extra few minutes for a teacher to adapt these interventions for a younger classroom, such as to discuss and implement ways in which students can manage their homework and study time for short-term and long-term assignments. They can even practice together by maintaining an agenda and log in the classroom of the day’s tasks and assignments.
Resources and References:
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1994). Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance: Issues and Educational Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. P. 181-194.
Strategies for Teaching Diverse Learners
Dr. Novick
Spring 2011
TABLE OF CONTENTS
#1: Positive Reinforcement
#2: Time-Out
#3: Behavioral Contracting
#4: Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
#5: Cross-Age Mentoring
#6: Class-Wide Peer Tutoring
#7: Curriculum Compacting for Gifted Students
#8: Time-Management Training
Title of Tool/Technique #1: Positive Reinforcement
Description of tool/technique: Students often do not possess intrinsic motivation to perform academic tasks or perform certain behaviors; therefore, they must be offered incentives as extrinsic motivation. When something positive is administered as the result of a desirable behavior, the behavior is reinforced, and the students become conditioned to repeat the behavior in the hopes of receiving that reward again. “The ultimate goal …is for students to succeed by performing tasks that facilitate their future growth through sustained intrinsic motivation”. (Witze 2003, 89)
Applications: -Rewards may be tangible, such as candy; they may be special privileges; or they may be verbal, such as praise. Praise, which is immediate, sincere and specific, is the most effective reinforcement both short and long-term improvement. Physical rewards should be delivered along with praise so that the reward can be removed while continuing the praise. -Research shows that most positive reinforcers yield immediate compliance with desirable behaviors, and many suggest that it is even necessary for learning (Witzel, 90). -In order for the reward to elicit student compliance, it must be relevant to the task and worth the effort. Students must feel a connection with the teacher for the reward or consequence to matter and to be a convincing incentive. -Teachers must determine when and how often to give positive reinforcement to motivate students to perform as desired, and must be creative to decide which reinforcers will be effective and appropriate. We must determine the cause of student behaviors, and therefore recognize if we are sending an appropriate message while using positive reinforcement, and are not counter-productively attracting more negative student behavior for the sake of receiving incentives towards rewards. -Rewards may be given to a class or to individuals, but must be given wisely and sensitively as per student needs and abilities. -Students with special needs require more external control for their behavior, and therefore require more extrinsic motivation.
Application Limits: -Many positive reinforcers easily become overused, don’t address social-skills problems, foster long-term dependency, and often do not generalize beyond the classroom (p. 90). They usually do not yield long-term changes of behavior, but rather only short-term compliance. -Children are often stimulated by incentives which may be costly or unhealthy, i.e. junk food. One psychologist recommends rewards that have “no sugar, no salt, and no cost”. -Teachers sometimes become dependent on giving rewards, if students realize that they will receive them for positive behaviors, and will not perform well unless incentivized. Teachers must know how to use it as an aid, but not as a crutch. -Some research suggests that positive reinforcement, which becomes extrinsic motivation, overpowers and negates any intrinsic motivation students may have had. -Physical rewards should only be given in addition to praise, so they can wean students off the physical rewards while still giving praise, and have them satisfied with that. -Students with special needs will require more extrinsic motivation, and while they may each require a unique reinforcer, they still expect equity among the rewards the classmates receive; the teacher must carefully determine which reinforcers will benefit which students and how.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: Teachers ofLimudei Kodesh,more than other subjects, try to create positive relationships with students both in and out of the classroom, to instill emotional and spiritual connections between the students and Jewish texts and role models. If students do not seem interested with the Jewish content, teachers fear disenchantment with Judaism in general, and often resort to trying to engage students by using incentives, in the hopes that students will like them and like the course. Torah teachers are especially careful that students will view both the teacher and the subject in a positive way, which, to children, is often by means of giving them prizes and other rewards. We can’t, however, allow the rewards to become excessive, or to be weak and succumb to pressure to give rewards. General studies teachers are usually not as liberal with rewards, and require hard work; we must motivate students to approach Limudei Kodesh seriously as well and not as a game to receive prizes, but with a feeling of, “Her ways are ways of pleasantness”.
Personal Reflections: In an era of affluence, children are materially comfortable, worldly, and feel entitled to luxuries and treats. They learn from an early-age that good behavior is not only spiritually and socially rewarding, but physically rewarding as well. When we condition them to, for example, say “Please” and then we give them a candy, they may think they don’t have to use good manners unless they get something in return. We must instill within children the virtues of kindness to others, hard work in school, and to simply “do the right thing” for its own sake, regardless of perks and benefits. I try to avoid bribing students with rewards, but am happy to shower them with frequent praise. I give physical rewards intermittently so they do not grow dependent on it, but still feel validated and that they do, indeed, get rewarded for good behavior.
Before starting my teaching position at a school with an affluent population, I was concerned that the students would be spoiled and feel entitled, and that no extrinsic motivation would be sufficient to motivate them. I was happily surprised when they responded so well to receiving simple carnival tickets or lollipops, or having their names written on the blackboard with a smiley face. Regardless of the expensive high-tech gadgets they receive as gifts, they are still children who get excited by sweets.
Resources and References:
Witzel, B. S., and Mercer, C. D., (2003). Using Rewards to Teach Students with Disabilities: Implications for Motivation. Remedial and Special Education, 24 (2)
Title of Tool/Technique #2: Time-Out
Description of tool/technique: When a student misbehaves, a teacher may reinforce the behavior by taking away something desirable, or giving something undesirable. There are varying degrees of time-out, ranging from simply ignoring the student’s disruption, to forcing him to sit apart from his classmates within the classroom, to secluding the student outside the classroom. Students learn that their actions have consequences.
Applications: -For a time-out outside of the classroom to be an effective consequence for bad behavior, time-in in the classroom must be very stimulating and enjoyable. Engaging teaching is the best way to pre-empt behavior problems. -Different forms and degrees of time-outs can be used for students across ages and grades. -The teacher should explain the reason for the time-out, and in a calm tone of voice. --Time-out should not be longer than a few minutes for minor misbehavior, or many minutes for more severe infractions.
Application Limits: -If a student’s intention in his misbehavior is to get a reprieve from learning, the time-out is actually reinforcing the misbehavior. -Teachers often administer punishments while upset; this leads to irrational, excessive, and ineffective punishing. It is often tempting to simply dismiss the problematic student from the classroom, but that is not always a useful solution. We should take care to deny privileges or give punishments calmly and fairly to avoid problem escalation. -For small children, time-out may prove frightening, not punitive, and they may not learn their lesson. For older students, only more-intense time-outs will prove punitive. Teachers need to think carefully about appropriate consequences for various developmental stages.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: Students may act-out during Tefila or Limudei Kodesh classes, but we do not want them to miss-out on the important ritual or valuable spiritual lesson, so some teachers are not quick to dismiss students, even if it is appropriate.
Personal Reflections: I recall, as a small child, being somewhat frightened of being sent to time-out. It is interesting to observe that my fifth-grade students are very hesitant, almost fearful, to be separated from their classmates to sit at a side-table as punishment, even within view.
Resources and References:
Barbetta, P.M., Norona K L., and Bicard, D. F. (2005). Classroom Behavior Management: A Dozen Common Mistakes and what to do Instead. Preventing School Failure, 49 (3) 12.
Title of Tool/Technique #3: Behavioral Contracting
Description of tool/technique: The teacher writes a contract, which students must sign, specifying the behavior she expects from them, and the consequences of behaving accordingly or not. After instructing students how to use the chart, and encouraging their self-management, teacher and student discuss if the student deserves rewards or penalties based on fulfillment of the expectations; studies show that they usually agree on the results the students deserve.
“The use of behavior contractsthat define expected behaviors and associated consequences
was related to: (a) increased student productivity (Kelley & Stokes, 1984), (b) increased on-task behavior and daily assignment completion (White-Blackburn, Semb, & Semb, 1977), (c) improved school grades (Williams & Anandam, 1973), and (d) improved student self-control (Drabman, Spitalnik, & O'Leary, 1973)” (Simonsen, 2008).
Applications: -Useful for students of all ages and grades, for individuals or for many students at one time. -Usable in any regular classroom setting, using consequences already in-use for other students. -Provides a visual reminder of expectations for students to see and remember throughout the day.
Application Limits: -It may be cumbersome for the teacher to concentrate and follow-up on the behavioral and academic performance of a few students while instructing a whole classroom. -Older students may think the contract is juvenile, and even younger students may be cynical and uncooperative about filling out the contract.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: The dual-curriculum of Jewish day schools, along with additional activities such as Tefilla, would necessitate a long and detailed contract to encompass all of a teacher’s hopes for students’ good conduct and successful academic performance. We may have to prioritize and select only a few behaviors are most significant to expect from disruptive or weak students.
Personal Reflections: This system demands that students are involved in and aware of the accountability of their actions. When teachers require students to sign a consent form that they will or will not behave a certain way, they think intensely about the ramifications. In Azrieli, one professor requires any student who uses a laptop computer in-class to sign a contract that s/e will not use Internet; I heard from a friend that a graduate program at NYU requires participants to sign a contract prohibiting cheating, at the expense of dismissal from the program. The conscious agreeing creates a conscience of abiding.
Resources and References:Barbetta, P.M., Norona K L., and Bicard, D. F. (2005). Classroom Behavior Management: A Dozen Common Mistakes and what to do Instead. Preventing School Failure, 49 (3) 12.
Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based Practices in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31 (3), 351-380.
White-Blackburn, G., Semb, S., & Semb, G. (1977). The effects of a good-behavior contract on the classroom behaviors of sixth grade students. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10(2), 312.
Title of Tool/Technique #4: Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
Description of tool/technique: Established after the revised 1997 IDEA, PBIS is a collection of guidelines and approaches to help school teachers and administrations organize, understand, and implement research on best-practice in education to improve academic and social-emotional behaviors. Rather than reacting to isolated incidents, it emphasizes successful cooperation of instructional and classroom management techniques as the best prevention for behavior problems, creating an overall positive school environment. There is a tiered progression of techniques for use with students from general to more-specific learning and behavior needs and issues.
Applications: -Designed for use with regular and special needs learners. -There are guidelines and resources for use with elementary and high-school students. -Faculty and parents are involved in some decision-making processes.
Application Limits: -Designed by the federal government’s Department of Education to access all types of learners in all types of settings, adaptable by schools and communities for their specific needs, it is currently being implemented by hundreds of schools and seems widely beneficial with no apparent limitations.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: The database has a great collection of resources and tools, adaptable across subjects and populations. Some things may need to be altered slightly for use in day schools, with different curriculum needs and cultural sensitivities.
Personal Reflections: This seems to be an impressive effort by a national establishment to provide uniform excellence among schools in behavioral and scholastic performance. I am not aware if I’ve ever seen this used, but anticipate utilizing its materials for help with my own classroom management, organization, and instruction.
Resources and References: www.pbis.org
Title of Tool/Technique #5: Cross-Age Mentoring
Description of tool/technique: Students across different grades are grouped to work together, with the older ones mentoring the younger ones. Mentors gain academically by teaching others, and also decrease negative behaviors such as truancy and dropping-out. Students in the older position are motivated by the opportunity to be role models, and benefit from being put into leadership roles. Even weak students may feel a boost in self-esteem, able to help others in ways they can. Mentees are also shown to learn better from mentors than from independent programs, such as educational computer games. Student-led tutoring has become more popular in recent times, emphasizing students’ involvement in their own learning processes.
Applications: -Can be used across all grades and achievement levels in a variety of subjects and activities. -Can be used in classrooms or informal settings for extra-curricular programs. -Most student tutors begin in or after 5th grade, when they have developed stable learning habits and can be responsible for a younger child. Schools often assign tutors to tutees two grades younger. -Students with special needs contribute and boost their self-image of competence by giving to younger students, when they are usually the ones receiving help from others. They are often paired with younger students with similar academic struggles. -This is helpful in immigrant populations, for students more-experienced in the language and culture to tutor younger newer immigrants. -Teachers should supervise grouping of students and ensure the older ones are properly guiding the younger ones.
Application Limits: -Not all of the older students will necessarily be strong students capable of properly teaching others. -Not all of the younger students will necessarily respond well to an older stranger. -Older students may not be aware or understand what younger students do or do not know and how to communicate in a way that is stimulating for both. –Students and tutors are gathered from various classrooms; it is challenging to coordinate schedules and location, and for the limited amount of teachers to supervise and monitor every group’s instruction and interaction.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: -A heavy workload, full classrooms, and limited staff may restrict opportunities for two or more classes to join together. -Hebrew may be part of the project, and may pose a challenge even for the older students.
Personal Reflections: The elementary school where I teach provides numerous wonderful opportunities for cross-age mentoring. Eighth graders help at many younger-grade programs, and fifth graders help first graders, and all ages in between get involved in both curricular and extra-curricular activities. Older students read stories with younger children during “Read Across America” and in special enrichment groups. Fifth graders act as role models helping first-graders learn to daven Hallel at school-wide Rosh Chodesh celebrations. It is precious to watch even the toughest students behaving very sweet, patient, and nurturing to younger children. They value the opportunities to be leaders, and rise to the occasion each time. As a teacher, each child’s potential to succeed and contribute really shines through when they are given the opportunity to share with others.
Resources and References:
Rekrut, M. D. (1994). Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring: The Lessons of Research. Journal of Reading, 37 (5) 356-362
Title of Tool/Technique #6: Class-Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT)
Description of tool/technique: Students in the same class or grade help each other learn. Students may be paired with a classmate who has similar learning abilities so that they can review and work well together on equal footing. Conversely, students with opposite learning abilities may work together as complementary to each other’s learning. For example, a stronger student may be paired with a weaker student, so the stronger student can help the weaker one review, and maybe the weaker one can even help the stronger one in a different way. Students are empowered to help each other, by working together, learning from and respecting their peers. They also may be more interested to learn with peers than to listen to a teacher.
“Classwide peer-tutoring(CWPT; e.g., Delquadri, 1986; Greenwood, Carta, & Hall, 1988) programs have been shown to improve both academic engagement and reading achievement (Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1989; Simmons, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 1995). Furthermore, the use
of CWPT has been shown to lead to a decrease in off-task behavior as well as an increase in academic performance for students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD; DuPaul, Ervin, Hook, & McGoey, 1998)” (Simonsen, et.al. 2008).
Applications: -Students of all ages and grades can be peer tutors, enjoying playing the role of teacher, or the roles of partners. -Good for use in any subject, formally or informally; both cognitive and affective content can be taught. Tutors and tutees are both conveniently located within the same classroom. -The most effective pairs, and the way students report feeling most comfortable- at any age- is with a peer of the same gender. -Training workshops result in more effective tutoring.
Application Limits: -Some weaker students may feel insulted or resentful of a classmate assuming the role of their teacher. To the contrary, some weak or lazy students will abuse the stronger classmate to their advantage by trying to cull from their knowledge and skills without exerting their own efforts. –There are usually a few students who insist on working alone.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: Ideally, this is an enactment of the classical Jewish pedagogical model of chavruta learning. If students do not like peer-tutoring, they may feel negatively inclined towards greater chavruta learning later in life.
Personal Reflections: While working with classmates, I always struggled, as a strong student, with the fine balance between working together: I would give the answers, carry the burden of the work, or was concerned I’d sound like I was preaching to my peers. I see now that when there is a culture of understanding and respecting different learning styles, and partners are switched for different projects so that different students work with others each time, there is good teamwork and less division between students of different learning abilities. I have learned the value of humility by working with others who contribute ideas and methods different from my own, and hope to impart that to my students.
Resources and References:
Rekrut, M. D. (1994). Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring: The Lessons of Research. Journal of Reading, 37 (5) 356-362
Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based Practices in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31 (3), 351-380.
Title of Tool/Technique #7: Curriculum Compacting for Gifted Students
Description of tool/technique: Advanced students often grow bored and may even become disruptive in a regular classroom which is directed towards the learning needs of average or below-average students. To keep them motivated and stimulated, teachers should modify materials and assignments for gifted students by omitting the more-basic information and skills which they already possess, jumping to the more advanced material, in quantity or in quality. Using specific standardized measures, teachers must carefully assess and diagnose which areas the gifted student has already mastered, and which objectives he has achieved and which he can advance towards. Ideally, the teacher or school should then provide enrichment within the subject, or acceleration beyond it into other realms. Compacting and enrichment materials should be in subjects in which the student is interested, and not simply subjects in which the student performs well without real interest.
Applications: -May be used starting from lower elementary school. -It may be extra work given to do in the regular classroom, or there may be a separate enrichment group that uses a different classroom. -Subjects can be compacted into topics or according to time intervals.
Application Limits: -This creates extra work for the teacher; but, just as she must differentiate for students with learning disabilities, so too gifted students deserve modifications to enable their maximum learning. -This demands extra resources to provide more curricular materials and time for the students to learn beyond the regular class.
Application Challenges in Jewish Settings: -Day schools and yeshivot already have so many subjects, and many varying levels of student achievement within the different subjects, such as Gemara and Ivrit. This makes it hard for teachers, with limited staff, to focus on the advanced needs of a few individuals, and to be prepared with advanced knowledge and materials for a possibly beyond the realm of his/her expertise. -Public school systems may have prepared enrichment materials; day schools need to create their own materials for Limudei Kodesh. -Students may already feel over-burdened with schoolwork, that even if they want to complete higher-level work, they may be too tired or busy to perform at a level higher than necessary.
Personal Reflections: We sometimes become too preoccupied with our students who are struggling to devote extra time and attention to students who are easily accomplishing. But we need to value and advance the learning potential of those strong students by providing opportunities for them to continue succeeding at their quicker pace and enjoying academic achievement. We need these students to feel motivated, empowered, and appreciated, yet without favoring them. I fondly remember and appreciate the enrichment opportunities I was given, and hope I can identify and satisfy the potential inherent in my students to enable their growth.
Resources and References: www.nagc.org
Renzulli, J.S., Smith, L. H., and Reis, S. M. (1982). Curriculum Compacting: An Essential Strategy for Working with Gifted Students. The Elementary School Journal 82 (3) 185-194.
Title of Tool/Technique #8: Time Management Training
Description of Tool/Technique: An obstacle to many students’ success is their misuse of time and disorganized study habits. While some people naturally manage time well, others do not; but, it can be taught. Effective time-management includes self-monitoring, planning, self-efficacy and both product and process goal-setting. Students often are not consciously aware of how they misuse their time, or underestimate how much time is needed for tasks. Some interventions for this are to keep a log to visualize the time they spend on different activities, to plan better and to avoid procrastination, and to track if the amounts of time they expected to take were accurate or not.
Application: Studies have been conducted on college students, and is even a course offered at some universities, and time-management training with the aforementioned interventions resulted in grade improvements, which were even maintained throughout many semesters.
Application Limits: Researchers understand the potential for learners of different ages and cognitive abilities to relate differently to time-management strategies.
Application Challenges in Jewish settings: Severe time restrictions for instruction of a dual-curriculum pose a challenge in spending time teaching students how to manage their time.
Personal Reflection: While time-management may seem like an “extra”, it is actually an essential skill which is fundamental to all classroom and academic success, and all basic life activities! Some people are naturally efficient, but others need practice. It is worth the extra few minutes for a teacher to adapt these interventions for a younger classroom, such as to discuss and implement ways in which students can manage their homework and study time for short-term and long-term assignments. They can even practice together by maintaining an agenda and log in the classroom of the day’s tasks and assignments.
Resources and References:
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1994). Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance: Issues and Educational Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. P. 181-194.